Uveitis in Cats: Symptoms, Causes, Diagnosis & Treatment

Introduction

Uveitis in cats is a serious, painful eye condition that is almost always a warning sign of an underlying problem rather than a disease in itself ^{[1, 2, 3, 4]}. Catching it early can mean the difference between saving your cat's vision and losing the eye entirely.

The uvea is the middle, blood-vessel-rich layer of the eye. It consists of three connected structures: the iris (the coloured part around the pupil), the ciliary body (which produces fluid inside the eye and controls focusing), and the choroid (the vascular layer behind the retina) ^{[1, 2, 3, 5]}. When any part of this layer becomes inflamed, the condition is called uveitis.

Veterinarians classify the inflammation by where it sits in the eye ^{[1, 2, 4, 3]}. Anterior uveitis (iritis or iridocyclitis) involves the iris and ciliary body. Intermediate uveitis (pars planitis) affects the area behind the ciliary body. Posterior uveitis (choroiditis or chorioretinitis) inflames the choroid and the overlying retina. Panuveitis means all three layers are involved at once. In everyday practice, when someone says a cat has "uveitis," they usually mean anterior uveitis, because that is the form most visible on examination ^[2].

Uveitis can also be described by its timeline ^{[3, 6]}. Acute uveitis comes on suddenly, is usually painful, and often responds quickly to treatment. Chronic uveitis is long-standing, low-grade inflammation that tends to cause complications even when the eye looks only mildly affected. Recurrent uveitis describes flare-ups that come and go, with quiet periods in between.

Red Flags and Symptoms of Uveitis in Cats

The signs of uveitis in cats are notoriously subtle, and many owners do not realise anything is wrong until the disease is already advanced ^[3]. Knowing what to look for gives you a real advantage.

Cats in pain often do not cry or squint dramatically. Instead, they may hide more than usual, eat less, or simply seem "off" ^{[3, 6, 1]}. Specific eye-related signs include squinting, frequent blinking (called blepharospasm), sensitivity to light (photophobia), and pawing at the face. The eye itself often looks red, with engorged blood vessels on the white of the eye and around the iris ^{[2, 6, 4]}. The clear window at the front of the eye (the cornea) may turn cloudy from fluid build-up (corneal oedema), and the pupil often becomes small and constricted (a finding called miosis).

If you can look closely (or your vet shows you), there may be visible changes inside the eye ^{[3, 4]}. Aqueous flare is a hazy, "smoky" appearance to the fluid in the front chamber caused by protein leaking from inflamed blood vessels. Hypopyon is a layer of white or yellow pus settling at the bottom of the front chamber. Keratic precipitates are small clumps of inflammatory cells stuck to the inside of the cornea. The iris may develop new, abnormal blood vessels (rubeosis iridis), change colour, or look thicker than normal. Some cats also have watery or mucousy discharge (epiphora) ^{[2, 3]}.

Vision loss is a critical warning sign. Cats are masters at hiding blindness, especially in one eye, so you might only notice it when both eyes are affected ^[1]. Bumping into furniture, reluctance to jump, or hesitation in dim lighting are red flags that warrant an urgent vet visit.

When uveitis is part of a wider illness, your cat may also show fever, lethargy, loss of appetite, or other general signs of being unwell ^{[2, 3, 6]}. Posterior uveitis can be especially tricky because the eye may not look red at all from the outside; only a thorough internal eye exam will pick up changes such as debris floating in the vitreous, inflamed retinal lesions, or retinal detachment ^{[1, 6, 3]}.

Left untreated, uveitis can lead to cataracts, lens dislocation, secondary glaucoma (a painful rise in eye pressure), retinal detachment, and eventually a small, shrunken, blind eye (phthisis bulbi) ^{[3, 7]}. Because the signs are so easy to miss, any suspicious eye change in your cat deserves prompt veterinary assessment.

What Causes Uveitis in Cats?

Uveitis is never a stand-alone diagnosis; it is always the eye's way of telling you something else is wrong ^{[4, 3]}. Finding that "something else" is the central goal of investigation.

Causes fall into a handful of broad categories: infectious, neoplastic (cancer-related), immune-mediated, traumatic, lens-induced, or idiopathic (no cause found) ^{[2, 8, 7, 3, 4]}.

Infectious causes are particularly common in cats because several serious feline infections attack the eye ^{[2, 1, 7, 6]}. These include feline infectious peritonitis (FIP), feline leukaemia virus (FeLV), feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV), the parasite Toxoplasma gondii, the bacterium Bartonella henselae (the cause of cat-scratch disease), and various fungi such as Cryptococcus, Histoplasma, Blastomyces, and Coccidioides. Feline herpesvirus-1 (FHV-1) can also trigger uveitis.

Neoplastic causes include primary eye tumours such as iris melanoma (the most common), secondary lymphoma, and metastatic cancers that spread into the eye from elsewhere ^{[5, 2, 7]}. Lymphoma is especially important because up to half of cats with newly diagnosed lymphoma show some ocular involvement, and ocular lymphoma is generally considered an advanced form of the disease ^[7].

Immune-mediated disease is the most common diagnosis when no other cause is found ^{[3, 4]}. In these cases, the cat's own immune system attacks the eye for reasons that are not fully understood. Lens-induced uveitis is a special type of immune reaction that happens when lens proteins leak into the eye, either slowly through an intact capsule (phacolytic uveitis) or suddenly after a capsule rupture (phacoclastic uveitis) ^[3].

Traumatic uveitis follows blunt or penetrating injuries, cat scratches, or foreign bodies ^{[2, 8]}. Importantly, internal (endogenous) causes from a systemic disease are far more common than external (exogenous) eye injuries ^{[2, 3]}.

In a frustratingly large proportion of cats (between 30% and 70%), no underlying cause is ever identified despite thorough testing ^{[2, 4, 3]}. These cases are labelled idiopathic and are usually managed as presumed immune-mediated disease.

There is no strong breed, sex, or age predisposition, though several studies note a slight overrepresentation of middle-aged, male, domestic shorthair cats ^{[2, 3]}. Geographic location matters too: certain fungal infections are far more likely in specific regions, so your vet will take your cat's travel history into account ^{[7, 6]}.

Types of Uveitis in Cats

Classifying the type of uveitis your cat has is not just academic; it directly shapes the diagnostic plan, the treatment, and the prognosis ^[3]. Here is how veterinarians sort it out.

Anatomically, anterior uveitis (iridocyclitis) is by far the most commonly recognised form ^[2]. Intermediate uveitis (pars planitis) is rare but described in cats ^[1]. Posterior uveitis (choroiditis or chorioretinitis) affects the choroid and retina and frequently causes retinal detachment ^{[1, 6, 3]}. Panuveitis means inflammation of all uveal layers at once and is often seen in severe systemic diseases such as FIP ^{[3, 9]}.

Aetiologically, uveitis is either infectious (viral, bacterial, fungal, or parasitic) or non-infectious (immune-mediated, neoplastic, traumatic, or lens-induced) ^{[2, 7, 3, 4]}. Both categories require very different treatment strategies.

By duration, uveitis is acute (sudden and painful, often responding quickly to anti-inflammatories), chronic (persistent low-grade inflammation that tends to cause complications), or recurrent (repeated flare-ups separated by quiet periods) ^{[3, 6]}.

Two further categories help guide decision-making ^{[3, 4]}. Health status: is your cat otherwise well, or systemically ill? Bilateral vs. unilateral: are both eyes affected or just one? Systemic diseases almost always cause bilateral uveitis, while trauma and primary eye tumours are more often one-sided.

What this means for your cat: understanding exactly which type of uveitis your cat has tells your vet which tests to prioritise and which treatments are likely to work.

How Vets Diagnose Uveitis in Cats

Reaching a diagnosis is a step-by-step process that combines a careful history, a hands-on eye exam, and a series of targeted tests ^{[5, 4]}. The aim is twofold: confirm that the eye really is inflamed, and hunt down the underlying cause.

Your vet will start with detailed questions about your cat's vaccination status, indoor/outdoor lifestyle, parasite prevention, any recent trauma, travel history, and exactly when you first noticed the eye changes ^{[5, 4]}. This background information helps narrow down which causes are most likely.

The ophthalmic examination itself uses specialised instruments. Direct and indirect ophthalmoscopy allow the vet to look at the back of the eye, while slit-lamp biomicroscopy magnifies the front of the eye to reveal subtle changes like keratic precipitates, aqueous flare, and posterior synechiae (adhesions between the iris and lens) ^[4]. Tonometry, a quick and painless pressure check, almost always shows low intraocular pressure (IOP) in uveitis, which is the key feature distinguishing it from glaucoma, where the pressure is high ^{[10, 4, 2, 3]}.

A full general physical examination is equally important, looking for fever, swollen lymph nodes, abdominal masses, breathing changes, or anything else that hints at a systemic disease ^{[5, 4]}. Baseline bloodwork (a complete blood count, serum biochemistry profile, and urinalysis) gives a snapshot of your cat's overall health and may reveal clues to an underlying cause ^{[5, 4, 3, 2]}.

Infectious disease testing is usually the next step, targeting the most common culprits: FeLV antigen testing, FIV antibody testing, Toxoplasma serology, Bartonella serology or PCR, and FIP-related diagnostics such as serum antibody titres or PCR on fluid samples ^{[5, 3, 2]}. Imaging (chest X-rays and abdominal ultrasound) is often added to look for cancer, fluid build-up, or organ changes ^{[3, 2]}.

One test your vet will probably not recommend is aqueocentesis, sampling fluid directly from the front chamber of the eye. Although it can identify infectious agents, it requires general anaesthesia, carries real risks of worsening the uveitis, damaging the lens, or causing bleeding, and is rarely worth it in cats ^[2]. Sampling elsewhere in the body, when needed, is preferred.

Complex or unusual cases benefit enormously from referral to a veterinary ophthalmologist, who has access to advanced imaging and specialised expertise ^[2]. Diagnostic testing is usually staged, starting with the most likely and least invasive tests, then progressing as needed based on risk, cost, and expected yield ^[3].

The single most important goal of all this testing is to find a treatable underlying cause, because addressing the root problem dramatically improves the outcome ^{[4, 8]}.

Treating Uveitis in Cats: Immediate and Ongoing Care

Treatment of feline uveitis has two parallel tracks: controlling the eye inflammation itself, and tackling whatever underlying disease is driving it ^{[4, 1, 3]}. Both must happen, ideally in parallel.

While diagnostic tests are being run, your vet will start nonspecific anti-inflammatory therapy right away, because every day of uncontrolled inflammation increases the risk of permanent damage ^{[4, 3]}. The choice of medication depends on whether the inflammation is at the front or the back of the eye. Anterior uveitis is treated with topical corticosteroid and/or non-steroidal eye drops; posterior uveitis, severe disease, or bilateral involvement requires systemic anti-inflammatory drugs (most commonly oral prednisolone) because topical drops do not penetrate to the back of the eye ^{[7, 3, 2]}.

A second critical medication is atropine, a cycloplegic (a drug that paralyses the focusing muscle) and mydriatic (a drug that dilates the pupil) ^[3]. Atropine is applied directly to the eye in acute anterior uveitis to relieve ciliary muscle spasm (a major source of pain), prevent the iris from sticking to the lens, and reduce leakage of inflammatory material into the eye.

Pain control is not optional. Atropine itself provides significant pain relief by stopping ciliary spasm, and additional analgesics such as buprenorphine or careful use of systemic NSAIDs may be added for severe pain ^{[1, 2, 3]}. NSAIDs must be used cautiously in cats because of their unique sensitivity to this drug class.

Specific therapy is layered on once a cause is identified ^{[2, 3, 9, 4]}. Examples include clindamycin for toxoplasmosis, antifungal drugs for fungal infections, antiviral therapy for FIP, and immunosuppressive drugs (used only after infectious and neoplastic causes have been ruled out) for immune-mediated disease.

Surgery has a limited but important role. Lens extraction may be needed after capsule rupture, enucleation (removal of the eye) may be required for uncontrollable glaucoma or intraocular cancer, and phacoemulsification can sometimes address chronic lens-induced inflammation ^{[3, 1]}.

Acute anterior uveitis is a painful emergency, and prompt treatment usually brings rapid improvement within 24 to 48 hours ^{[3, 10]}. Chronic or recurrent cases need long-term management, often with slowly tapering doses of systemic medication such as prednisolone or cyclosporine, and vigilant monitoring for flare-ups and complications ^[3].

Frequent recheck examinations, including tonometry and slit-lamp evaluation, are essential to catch rising eye pressure or persistent inflammation early and adjust treatment accordingly ^[3]. If secondary glaucoma develops, topical dorzolamide (a carbonic anhydrase inhibitor that lowers eye pressure) is added, sometimes alongside systemic medication; retinal detachment and severe synechiae require urgent specialist care ^{[7, 4, 10]}.

For complicated, refractory, or surgical cases, referral to a veterinary ophthalmologist offers the best chance of preserving vision and comfort ^[2].

Eye Drops and Medications for Feline Uveitis

Knowing what is actually going into your cat's eyes can help you feel more confident about the treatment plan.

Topical corticosteroids are the workhorse for anterior uveitis. The most commonly used are prednisolone acetate 1% suspension and dexamethasone 0.1% solution, typically started at 2–4 times daily and tapered gradually as inflammation settles ^{[7, 2]}. Topical non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) such as ketorolac, flurbiprofen, and diclofenac offer an alternative, especially when steroids must be avoided, but they are used with caution because they can slow corneal healing if an ulcer is present ^{[7, 2]}.

In acute anterior uveitis with normal or low intraocular pressure, atropine 1% solution or ointment is applied once or twice daily to dilate the pupil and paralyse the ciliary muscle, providing pain relief and helping prevent synechiae. Atropine must NOT be used — or used only with great caution — when secondary glaucoma is present or suspected, because mydriasis can further impair aqueous outflow and worsen the IOP rise. If secondary glaucoma develops or pressure rises, your vet will adjust the treatment plan. Atropine may need to be stopped, and pressure-lowering medications may be added. Regular pressure checks (tonometry) are essential so your vet can respond quickly to any changes. ^[3]

When deeper or more aggressive immunosuppression is needed, oral prednisolone is the standard systemic option for posterior, bilateral, or severe uveitis; your vet will determine the exact dose and tapering schedule based on your cat's weight and response ^[3]. For chronic idiopathic uveitis, additional immunomodulators such as cyclosporine or azathioprine may be added, but only after infectious and neoplastic causes have been thoroughly excluded ^[2].

If intraocular pressure rises, topical dorzolamide 2% is the most commonly used pressure-lowering drop ^[7]. Specific antimicrobials come into play once a cause is confirmed: for toxoplasmosis, your vet will prescribe an antibiotic such as clindamycin, with the dose and duration tailored to your cat; itraconazole or fluconazole for fungal uveitis, and doxycycline for suspected Bartonella infection ^{[6, 4]}.

A major recent advance is antiviral therapy with GS-441524 or remdesivir for FIP-associated uveitis, with ocular improvements often visible within seven days ^[9]. Subconjunctival corticosteroid injections are generally avoided in cats because of the risk of reactivating latent feline herpesvirus ^[2].

Every anti-inflammatory medication must be tapered gradually, never stopped abruptly, because sudden withdrawal can trigger rebound inflammation ^[3]. Frequent intraocular pressure checks and slit-lamp re-evaluations are essential throughout treatment to fine-tune therapy and catch complications early.

New and Emerging Treatments for Uveitis

The biggest recent breakthrough in feline uveitis is the arrival of effective antiviral drugs for FIP, a disease that used to be almost uniformly fatal. GS-441524 and remdesivir have transformed the picture, with ocular improvements often beginning within seven days of starting treatment and many cats achieving long-term remission ^{[9, 11]}. Optimal dosing and treatment duration for refractory or ocular-predominant FIP are still being refined, and extended courses or dose increases are sometimes needed ^[11].

Beyond antivirals, several other therapies are being explored. Mycophenolate mofetil and leflunomide are used off-label in dogs and humans for refractory immune-mediated uveitis, but published data on their safety and efficacy in cats are essentially absent. Sustained-release corticosteroid or cyclosporine implants are under investigation in other species, but none are yet standardised or commercially available for cats.

PCR testing of aqueous humour is increasingly available but should be interpreted with caution. A positive result does not automatically prove causation, because the breakdown of the blood-ocular barrier in uveitis allows organisms or their DNA to leak into the eye passively ^[3].

The overall evidence base for many feline uveitis treatments is limited, relying heavily on case reports and expert opinion; prospective controlled studies are urgently needed ^[3]. Researchers are also working to unravel the immunopathogenesis of idiopathic lymphoplasmacytic uveitis, with the hope of developing targeted biologic therapies in the future.

What Happens If Uveitis Is Left Untreated?

Untreated uveitis in cats is not a stable condition; it is a slow-motion catastrophe for the eye ^[3]. Every additional day of inflammation increases the chance of irreversible damage.

The most common blinding complications include secondary glaucoma, cataracts, retinal detachment, retinal degeneration, and posterior synechiae ^{[3, 4, 7]}. Secondary glaucoma is a common complication of feline uveitis, though reported prevalence varies across studies ^{[3, 4, 7]}. Chronically inflamed, blind eyes often become painful, and the globe may shrink to a small, soft lump (phthisis bulbi) or develop uncontrollable glaucoma, both of which may necessitate surgical removal of the eye to relieve suffering ^{[3, 7]}. Lens dislocation and corneal scarring are additional risks ^{[3, 7]}.

The stakes are even higher when uveitis is a manifestation of a life-threatening systemic disease such as FIP or cancer. Failing to investigate and treat the underlying illness allows the primary disease to progress unchecked, potentially leading to death ^{[6, 3]}.

The encouraging news: prompt veterinary care can interrupt this cascade and often preserves both vision and quality of life ^{[4, 10]}.

Prognosis: Can Uveitis Be Cured in Cats?

Whether uveitis can be "cured" depends entirely on the underlying cause, how quickly treatment starts, and how much damage has already occurred by the time of diagnosis ^{[7, 10]}. Visual prognosis is therefore highly variable and often described as "guarded" long-term.

When a specific treatable infection is identified early (for example, toxoplasmosis caught quickly), full recovery with preserved vision is genuinely possible ^{[4, 10]}. Idiopathic immune-mediated uveitis, by contrast, is typically a chronic disease. Inflammation can be controlled but usually not permanently cured, and recurrences are common, with a gradual risk of visual decline over time ^[3].

FIP-associated uveitis now carries a much better prognosis than it did before antiviral therapy, but long-term ocular outcomes depend on rapid initiation of treatment, possible dose adjustments, and close monitoring; relapses can still occur ^{[9, 11]}. Neoplastic uveitis has a guarded to poor outlook, especially if cancer has spread; iris melanoma, for instance, has an estimated metastatic rate of approximately 19–32% in the peer-reviewed literature, although enucleation may be curative for localised disease ^{[5, 7]}.

The single best prognostic indicator is early diagnosis paired with aggressive, appropriate therapy. Most cats show meaningful improvement within 24–48 hours when treatment is started promptly ^{[4, 10]}. Pre-existing complications such as glaucoma, retinal detachment, or lens luxation at the time of diagnosis substantially worsen the outlook for retaining vision ^[7]. Long-term success usually requires lifelong medication, regular ophthalmic rechecks, and a committed owner ^[3].

Living With and Managing Uveitis in Cats

Owning a cat with uveitis means accepting that this is often a marathon, not a sprint, and your role at home matters as much as what happens in the clinic ^[3].

Proper eye drop administration is the cornerstone of home care. Steroidal anti-inflammatory drops are typically given every 4–6 hours initially, then slowly tapered as signs improve. Always wash your hands before and after, avoid touching the dropper tip to the eye or fur, and keep bottles clean to prevent contamination.

Daily monitoring is essential. Watch for squinting, redness, cloudiness, pawing at the eye, or behavioural changes such as hiding or reduced appetite that could signal a flare-up ^[1]. Cats should be kept indoors to reduce trauma risk and exposure to infectious agents, with routine vaccinations maintained ^[1]. Consistent flea control is important because fleas are the vector for Bartonella, a known uveitis trigger ^[4].

Veterinary rechecks are non-negotiable, especially in the early stages. Expect visits weekly or every other week initially for tonometry and slit-lamp exams, with intervals gradually lengthening as the disease stabilises ^[3]. Medications must never be stopped suddenly; tapering is guided by your vet based on clinical response, and stopping too early can trigger a painful rebound ^[3].

Cats on long-term systemic immunosuppression need periodic bloodwork to watch for side effects such as bone marrow suppression, liver stress, or metabolic changes. If irreversible blindness or a painful, non-functional eye develops, enucleation (surgical removal of the eye) provides excellent pain relief; blind cats typically adapt remarkably well to indoor life ^{[3, 7]}.

Seek immediate veterinary attention if the eye suddenly becomes redder, appears larger, or your cat seems acutely painful, as these signs may indicate rising pressure (glaucoma) or other complications ^[10].

Is Cat Uveitis Contagious to Humans or Other Pets?

The short answer is no, uveitis itself is not contagious ^[1]. You cannot catch inflammation of the uvea from your cat, and your cat cannot catch it from another cat through casual contact.

The longer answer is more nuanced. Many of the underlying diseases that cause uveitis are transmissible, and some are also zoonotic (transmissible to humans) ^[10]. FeLV and FIV spread between cats through saliva and bite wounds but do not infect humans ^[1]. The feline coronavirus that can mutate into FIP is highly contagious among cats via the faecal-oral route, but the mutated FIP virus itself is not considered directly contagious ^[6].

Toxoplasma gondii oocysts shed in cat faeces pose a real zoonotic risk, particularly for pregnant women and immunocompromised individuals; daily litter box cleaning and thorough hand washing dramatically reduce this risk ^{[2, 6]}. Bartonella henselae can be transmitted to humans through scratches or bites, so rigorous flea prevention and gentle handling are sensible precautions ^[4]. Fungal causes are usually acquired from the environment rather than from direct cat contact ^[6].

General hygiene measures, including thorough hand washing after handling your cat, avoiding rough play, keeping cats indoors, maintaining vaccinations and parasite control, and isolating any cat showing signs of systemic illness, go a long way toward keeping both your cat and your family safe. Once the underlying cause of uveitis is identified, your vet can give you tailored advice specific to that disease.

Similar Conditions That Can Look Like Uveitis

Several other eye problems can mimic uveitis, and only a careful examination tells them apart. The most important mimic is glaucoma, which also causes a red, painful eye, but the intraocular pressure is elevated rather than low, and the pupil is often dilated rather than small ^[10].

Conjunctivitis causes redness and discharge but does not produce aqueous flare, keratic precipitates, miosis, or changes in intraocular pressure, because the inflammation is on the surface of the eye rather than inside it. Corneal ulcers can trigger a reflex uveitis through nerve pathways in the cornea, but the primary finding is a fluorescein-staining defect on the corneal surface, and the secondary uveitis typically resolves once the ulcer heals.

Lens luxation (displacement of the lens inside the eye) produces pain and redness and can affect eye pressure, but the displaced lens is visible on examination and does not cause keratic precipitates or flare unless uveitis is also present. Intraocular tumours such as iris melanoma can mimic uveitis by causing iris darkening, pupil distortion, and secondary glaucoma; detailed ophthalmic examination and imaging help differentiate a mass from diffuse inflammation ^[5].

A single prominent episcleral blood vessel, often a normal finding in flat-faced (brachycephalic) cats, can be mistaken for uveitic injection, but true uveitis typically involves multiple engorged vessels plus intraocular signs such as flare or miosis ^[3].

Definitive differentiation always relies on a complete ophthalmic examination including tonometry, slit-lamp biomicroscopy, and fluorescein staining ^{[10, 2]}.

What We Still Don't Know: Gaps and Current Research

Despite being common and potentially devastating, feline uveitis remains incompletely understood. Even after extensive investigation, no underlying cause is found in 30–70% of cases, leaving the immunopathogenesis of idiopathic lymphoplasmacytic uveitis poorly characterised ^{[4, 3]}.

The causal role of Bartonella henselae in uveitis is still debated; infection is associated with the disease, but definitive causation has not been proven ^{[2, 4]}. High-quality controlled studies on treatment protocols are lacking, and most current recommendations are derived from case series, expert opinion, and extrapolation from canine or human medicine ^[3]. Optimal immunosuppressive regimens for chronic idiopathic uveitis, including drug choice, dose, and duration, have not been standardised through prospective trials ^[3].

Long-term visual outcomes and recurrence rates with the new antivirals (GS-441524 and remdesivir) for FIP are still being gathered, and the best strategies for managing relapses remain under investigation ^{[9, 11]}. The diagnostic value of PCR on aqueous humour is uncertain, with sensitivity and specificity still being defined ^[2].

Perhaps most importantly, no validated clinical or laboratory markers currently exist to predict which feline uveitis patients will progress to secondary glaucoma or other blinding complications, representing a significant research gap that, once filled, could transform how this disease is managed.

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